What is the Gemological Institute of America?

GIA is a private, nonprofit educational institute founded in 1931 by Robert Shipley to focus on research and education in gemology and jewelry arts to professionalize the business and raise a cadre of jewelers the public could trust. A jeweler himself in the 1920s, Shipley recognized deficiencies in his knowledge, so he undertook training in Europe via the Great Britain National Association of Goldsmiths gemological course. Back in the U.S., he made it his mission to build a community of like-minded professionals.

The institute undertakes research, publishes the quarterly journal Gems & Gemology, and provides important resources for the industry, including a laboratory, library and newly developed instruments for identifying and grading gemstones. For instance, it was GIA that crafted the indispensable 10x eye loupe and devised the famous “Four C’s” approach to evaluating and grading diamonds based on cut, clarity, color and carat weight. Research conducted within institute labs develops ever-better methods for identifying, evaluating and grading gemstones and detecting synthetics and treated stones.

Equally important, GIA offers courses, programs and accreditation.

Apply and Attend GIA Worldwide

The primary GIA campus and headquarters are in Carlsbad, California. It has a worldwide presence with some 3,000 employees and campuses, labs and/or research centers in 13 countries. It also has the GIA Global Leadership Program with the Harvard Business School.

To apply and enroll in programs or courses, you need at least a high school diploma or GED and must be at least 18 years old for on-campus attendance. However, exceptions can be made for applicants as young as 16 with a high school degree and a parental letter of approval.

GIA Certification Courses and Programs

GIA offers individual courses and diploma programs. Students get hands-on experience identifying and grading gemstones, using cutting-edge instruments, identifying synthetic or treated stones and understanding the jewelry and gemstone market. General areas covered include gemology, jewelry and jewelry design. Full programs include the following and more:

• Graduate Gemologist Program®
• Graduate Diamonds Program
• Graduate Colored Stones Program
• Graduate Jeweler Program
• Jewelry Design & Technology Program
• Comprehensive CAD/CAM for Jewelry Program

Programs vary in length. For instance, the Graduate Gemologist Program® is the most comprehensive. It combines the Graduate Diamonds and the Colored Stones Programs, involves taking five courses and three labs and takes 26 weeks to complete. On the other hand, the Comprehensive CAD/CAM for Jewelry Program takes just seven weeks to complete.

A Certification Journey

Louisa May Carey, a Graduate Gemologist®, started her journey with an Applied Jewelry Professional diploma that consists of three classes, then the Graduate Pearls diploma. She says she then “went full-bore” with the endgame of reaching Graduate Gemologist®. It consists of two prerequisites of Diamond Essentials and Colored Stones Essentials then moves on to Diamond and Diamond Grading and Colored Stones Grading, including an in-person lab class for each, and lastly Gem Identification. Each eLearning class is made up of chapters with a corresponding quiz and a final exam. The remaining Gem ID course is in the traditional chapter-andquiz format with the second half adding in 500 gems sent in batches of 20 each. You complete the stone identification course and then submit it to your instructor for review. Both homework and the 20 stone final (which you can take on campus or have proctored) require a passing grade of nothing less than 100 percent.

GIA certification courses and programs are accredited by both the Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges (ACCSC) and the Distance Education Accrediting Commission (DEAC). Beyond facts and skills, an equal focus is on instilling excellence, professionalism and high ethical standards.

Study on Campus or at Home

Most GIA certification courses can be attended either on-campus or via eLearning, but—because of their inherent hands-on nature—all lab courses must be taken on campus. Students can attend on-campus courses at the headquarters in Carlsbad or in New York. As an example, in the U.S. you can earn the Graduate Gemologist® diploma by studying full-time on campus in either Carlsbad or New York, or you can earn the same diploma by taking the five required courses online (in a media-rich environment with flexible completion times and online exams) and the three lab courses on campus.

Even when studying online, students receive individualized attention. Louisa noted that one course in particular—Gem Identification—offered the most one-on-one instruction, but GIA instructors in all courses encouraged questions from students attending in-person or online. She especially liked the virtual Student Workroom. “If you are looking for more help or want to brush up on anything, the Student Workroom allows you to reserve a ‘seat’ for a half or full day with an instructor.”

Still, despite the flexibility of the online environment, Louisa found the in-person lab classes to be the best. “In general, eLearning is more solitary and you have to be very self-motivated. For me, not having the comradery of classmates and a group graduation at the end was the biggest drawback. But looking back, I will say not having the traditional classroom experience prepared me for what my current work is like.”

Louisa cautions that sticking with it once enrolled was not easy. “Having a distance education option is amazing. That being said, working full time, juggling homework and taking vacation time for the in-person lab classes, plus finding a place to stay within a budget…let’s just say you have to LOVE it!”

GIA Certification Costs & Financial Assistance

The cost of a GIA certification ranges. For instance, basic tuition ranges from a low of about $6,000 for a seven-week Jewelry Design program to a high of approximately $23,000 for the 26-week Graduate Gemologist® program.

Tables listing tuition for each program may be found in the GIA catalog and website. Those tables also provide estimates for the total “Cost of Attendance” (COA) for each program including housing, meals, transportation, books and supplies.

With its curricula approved by the U.S. Department of Education, students enrolled in on-campus programs are qualified to apply for Title IV federal financial aid. Qualifying students can also receive veteran benefits from the Department of Veterans Affairs. GIA itself offers scholarships to qualified students.

While some may look at the cost (especially total COA) and rethink, Louisa urges people to persevere, “Just like anything worth doing, before you do it there will never be enough time or money, but find a way. Investing in yourself will always be worth it.

Beyond the Courses

The research wing of GIA has invented many devices and instruments essential for gemstone testing and identification throughout its 90+ year history. Some of these are stocked in a campus store and available for students and professionals alike. Instruments range from simple tweezers and 10x loupes to spectroscopes, refractometers and polariscopes. A handy GIA Gem Identification Package, geared specifically to distance education students, provides devices for setting up a basic at-home gem testing and identification station. The store stocks books, classification charts and other print materials.

Benefits of a GIA Certification

How does being GIA-certified help in the long run? Wherever you go, people buy and wear jewelry and seek authorities they can trust. GIA can help a budding jeweler become that authority and obtain the professional skills to move to the next level.

To the average person on the street, mention gems and they’ll think of the person behind the counter in a jewelry or department store, but there are many more paths. GIA has helped people go on to careers as appraisers (for individuals, insurance companies, law enforcement), in retail sales and as wholesale buyers, as designers and bench jewelers, in the manufacturing world, and in auction houses, museums, and research and lab-based settings.

For Louisa, she learned to use state-of-the-art equipment; how to troubleshoot; how to take a moment away when looking at something too long. “I loved learning to listen and find the ‘tell’ in a gemstone and learning that if I don’t know something, to say so and how to find out. GIA did that for me. It gave me confidence. It gave me a skill set. Being able to apply my knowledge in a real-world setting was also life-changing.”

GIA Career Support

To give graduates a leg up, the institute established GIA Career Services to advise on options and how to plan and navigate the way to a successful career. They maintain a worldwide database of job offerings in the jewelry industry and hold an annual Jewelry Career Fair in Carlsbad, New York and London.

Help from GIA doesn’t end with graduation and a job. Per Louisa, “in the last few years online lectures, like the wonderful weekly GIA Knowledge Sessions, have been created. Continuing education and conversation are more accessible than ever. As a working professional, I am thankful to have such valuable platforms at my fingertips now.”

As for Louisa’s continuing journey, after a stint at an award-winning California jewelry store, she has struck out on her own. “I recently took my confidence to a new level by moving back to my childhood home of Whitefish, Montana, and opening my own business, LMC Jewelry Appraisal. It is so scary but so fun.”

This story about GIA certification appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story and photos by Jim Brace-Thompson.

The post How to Get a GIA Certification first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

The transformation from a found piece of rough to a cabbed or faceted gem is beautiful and dramatic. Sometimes the finished piece bears little resemblance to its humble beginnings. Here are a few before and after photos of the beauty of nature’s treasures from mine to mine.

Hematite Hematite is one of the most important sources of iron because of its high iron content, wide distribution, and abundance. Hematite derivс its name from the blood-red color of its powder. It has been used as a paint pigment since prehistoric times.

Malachite Malachite derives its name from a Greek word meaning “mallow green color.” Copper can be obtained from malachite using the smelting process. Malachite was used as an eye paint by the Egyptians and as a paint pigment starting in the 7th century.

Agate Most of the Tennesee Paint Rock agate deposits are located on the west side of the Cumberland Plateau near the Tennesee-Alabama border. Agate is a common variety of chalcedony and is found with bands of different colors and transparency. Agate often gets their name from the location where they are found.

Smoky Quartz Smoky quartz is produced when clear quartz is exposed to natural radiation. It is transparent to opaque and has a brownish-gray color. With a Mohs hardness of seven, it is a good candidate for use in the jewelry trade.

Tiger’s Eye Tiger’s eye is a variety of cryptocrystalline chalcedony quartz. Its chatoyant property (cat’s eye effect ) makes it popular with collectors. Tiger’s eye is naturally golden brown. Other colors, such as red, are sold in stores and have been treated to achieve different colors.

This story about rough gemstones to jewelry appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Richard Gross and Pam Freeman.

The post From Rough Gemstones to Jewelry first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Agate Facts

Agate has a seven Mohs hardness, making it desirable in the lapidary trade. Agate is translucent and exhibits a vitreous luster. As with other varieties of quartz, its chemical formula is SiO2. The name agate comes from the river Achates in Sicily and was given that name by the Greek philosopher, Theophrastus. Agate names can be derived from the location where they are found such as Botswana agate or Laguna agate or because of a feature they exhibit like lace, fire or moss.

How Agates Are Formed

Agate formation takes place when silica solutions fill voids in cavities layer by layer such as in Florida’s agatized coral. The voids typically are in solidified volcanic lava flows and the layering over long periods of time can result in different colors because of chemical changes in the silica solutions. The layering can deposit the chalcedony in concentric circles around the wall of the cavity or build the layers up from the bottom of the cavity.

Decorative Agates

Agate is used to produce cabochons, beads, and free-form objects in jewelry making. Book-ends, ashtrays, and sculptures are also made using agate.

Positively Agate

In the metaphysical realm, agate is said to change negative energy into positive energy and to heal anxiety and internal anger. Agate may also help with concentration and boost mental function.

Where to Find Agates

In the United States, agates are found in Oregon, Wyoming, Montana, Arizona, Idaho, California, Washington, New Mexico, Iowa, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Utah, Florida, Colorado, Arkansas, and Nevada. Around the world, they are found in Australia, Germany, Brazil, Czechia, Botswana, Mexico, Morocco, Afghanistan, Argentina, Canada, Chile, India, China, and over 40 other countries.

This agate field guide appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Richard Gross.

The post A Field Guide to Agate first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Throughout history, the precious metals gold and silver have been admired for their beauty, hoarded for their value, coveted for their workability, fashioned into jewelry, and coined as currency. But the story of platinum metal is much different. It was once cursed, discarded as worthless and used as a counterfeiting agent.

Platinum Metal

Platinum is a rare, silvery-white metal. Its specific gravity of 21.45 and Mohs hardness of 4.0 make it somewhat more dense and much harder than gold. Although not as quite as inert as gold, it nevertheless does not oxidize, retaining its gleaming, white metallic luster and taking a superb polish. Platinum also has excellent electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance, and catalytic properties, plus a high melting point. Platinum is about as rare as gold but, unlike gold, it is rarely found in economic concentrations suitable for mining. Platinum occurs in some 20 minerals and is also found in nature, usually as silvery-gray grains and nuggets.

Platina

In the early 1500s, Spain’s colonial gold miners, in what is now Colombia, found platinum in gold placers. They roundly cursed this discovery because the metal then had neither use nor value and was difficult to separate from gold. The Spanish named the metal platina, a derogatory term meaning “little silver” and the root of our English word “platinum.” In the early 1600s, Spanish mint workers at the future site of Bogotá, Colombia, dumped large amounts of worthless platina into rivers to create extraordinarily rich placer deposits that would end up being mined centuries later. In 1670, Spanish metallurgists found platina’s first practical use as an alloying agent to enhance the hardness and durability of bronze cannon.

In 1700, metallurgists learned that gold alloyed with platina changed very little in weight or color. Spanish mint workers subsequently began adulterating gold coins with platina and pocketing the displaced gold. To suppress this rampant counterfeiting, the Spanish Crown banned private possession of platina under penalty of death. But when counterfeiting continued, it began offering a bounty for all platina turned in, giving the metal its first formal valuation. The Crown later secretly debased its own gold coinage with platina, using these “special” issues to settle foreign debts.

The Russian Experience

In 1824, Russian gold prospectors in the Ural Mountains discovered the rich Nizhne-Tagilsk platinum placers. The Russian government quickly monopolized platinum mining and refining, then began fabricating platinum jewelry which consumers promptly rejected as a cheap “silver imitation.” Determined to benefit from its platinum, the Russian government next issued legal-tender, platinum ruble coins. But by 1843, the number of circulating platinum rubles had far exceeded the official mint issues because European counterfeiters had been acquiring worthless Colombian platina and striking counterfeit rubles.

Coming of Age

During the 1850s, European scientists took advantage of platinum’s high melting point and chemical inertness to fabricate high-quality laboratory instruments and crucibles. Growing demand soon drove platinum’s price to $1.50 per troy ounce, higher than that of silver. By the 1890s, platinum’s extraordinary catalytic properties that accelerated many chemical reactions had made it the standard catalyst for acid manufacturing and petroleum “cracking.”

At the same time, platinum gained popularity as a jewelry metal when prestigious designers Louis Cartier, Charles Lewis Tiffany and Peter Carl Fabergé began combining platinum’s brilliant, white gleam with the glitter of diamonds and sapphires. By 1905, combined jewelry and industrial demand had driven platinum’s price above that of gold (then $20.67 per troy ounce) for the first time. Breaking the gold-price “barrier” earned platinum worldwide acceptance as a bona fide precious metal.

Industrial Platinum Metal

Platinum demand soared in the 1970s when federally mandated reductions in automotive-exhaust emissions required new automobiles to be equipped with catalytic converters to break down noxious hydrocarbons and nitrous oxides. Today’s automotive converters contain about one-half a troy ounce of platinum in a ceramic honeycomb called “autocatalyst,” which is currently the biggest use of platinum. Eight million troy ounces of platinum are now mined each year, mostly in South Africa and Russia, with lesser amounts recovered in Canada and the United States. The United States’ production comes almost entirely from Montana’s underground Stillwater Mine.

Jewelry Platinum Metal

About 1.5 million troy ounces of 85-to-95- percent-pure platinum are made into jewelry each year. Platinum purity, expressed in parts per thousand, is stated in hallmarks similar to gold karat marks. A “Pt950” or “Plat950” hallmark indicates a composition of 95 percent platinum; the remaining five percent is usually copper or palladium which enhances workability. Platinum’s white gleam complements or contrasts nicely with both colorless and colored gemstones. Popular composite jewelry creations combine the rich yellow of gold with the gleaming white of platinum—a fitting combination for a metal that, in less than 120 years, has gone from rags to riches.

This story about platinum appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Steve Voynick.

The post Platinum Metal’s Rise to Fame first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Although most people know this material for its beautiful blue color, it also can be found in pink and violet. Dumortierite can be found in various places across the globe, and at times, has been mistaken for sodalite, or lapis lazuli. Some variations that have gorgeous fibrous dumortierite sprays inside quartz crystals are rare. These tend to be very small pieces, usually ranging from one to five carats. Dumortierite is a good material for lapidary beginners to get hands-on experience. It’s available almost anywhere rocks are sold in a good variety of colors and patterns. It’s fairly hard, usually about seven to eight on the Mohs scale. It also cuts fairly easily.

Tips for Buying Dumortierite

When buying Dumortierite rough, the colors usually show on the outside, but it can have a thin brown rind that can be chipped away to expose the inner color. Many times the blues can be mottled with a lot of white. If a certain hue of blue or continual color throughout is needed, it’s best to buy slabs to be certain.

Cutting Rough Dumortierite

When starting out cutting rough, there is no certain direction to load the saw. This is helpful so that it can be loaded in a way that best fits the vice and yield the most material by cutting straight across the entire stone in one direction. Once the slabs are cut, there generally aren’t many fractures in this material. However, it’s always best to bench test before marking up the slabs for preform designs. Either flex the slab in hand to see if it’s stable or lightly tap it against the workbench or ground to see if there are any hidden fractures. This helps to avoid breaking while in the middle of trimming out cab shapes.

Cabbing Dumortierite

Once the preforms are cut and ready for cabbing, be sure to have a dry towel or canned air available to check for scratches along the way. Since towels get damp in a hurry and canned air can start getting expensive, one suggestion is to get a five-gallon air tank with a spray nozzle. It can be continually filled up by a personal air compressor or by a nearby gas station and it will last for quite a while.

Dumortierite tends to quickly show heavy white marks if scratches are still present. I suggest starting on an 80-grit steel wheel to shape and dome cabs and moving to either a 60-grit soft resin wheel or 140 soft resin. This material is fairly hard, so it will take a bit of time to smooth it out and remove all the scratches from the 80-grit wheel. Be sure to dry off occasionally and see if any white scratches are showing.

From this point, move on to the 280-grit soft resin wheel. A white or pale blue haze across the cab is to be expected, but not scratches. Make sure no scratches exist before moving forward. From this point, it’s fair routine to continue cabbing to the 600 grit, all the way up to the 14k grit soft resin wheels.

Finishing Gloss

A 50k grit polishing wheel works great to get an added high-luster gloss. Unless going slow in short increments, it’s not suggested to use polishing compounds on this material. Also, be sure not to allow the material to heat up too much. It can tend to fracture with heat.

This story about dumortierite previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Russ Kaniuth.

The post Dumortierite: What to Cut first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Sapphire

One of the official state gemstones of Montana, sapphires hold a special place in the Treasure State where they are readily found. Sapphires and rubies are both corundum, an aluminum oxide mineral typically found in crystalline form. The only difference between the two is the presence of chromium. If the corundum is red, it’s ruby. Otherwise, it’s always a sapphire.

One of the most desired types of gemstones, the most well-known sapphire hue is deep blue, but these gemstones are found in pink, green, violet, orange, purple and even brown. When they’re not blue, they’re referred to as fancy sapphires. These colors are because of the varying degrees of chromium, titanium oxide and iron within the stones. Sapphires also possess a trait called asterism where needle-like inclusions create the appearance of a six or twelve-patterned star. Beyond this unique characteristic appreciated by faceters, sapphires have a Mohs Amy Grisak; Getty Images/Science Photo Library value of nine, just below a diamond, making them extremely durable and an excellent choice for jewelry.

Tiger’s Eye

This distinct gem has a long history of fending off the “evil eye,” with its resemblance to a cat’s eye. In gemology, this trait is called chatoyancy, a French term meaning “shining like a cat’s eye.” When there are crocidolite (blue asbestos) fibers within cabochon-cut gemstones running parallel to each other, the rounded surface allows the light to reflect in a way that gives the tiger’s eye its signature look. Originally, scientists thought this phenomenon occurred when the crocidolite within the stone was changed by iron oxide and replaced with silica. But even though the coloration comes from this process, some researchers believe it’s actually crocidolite inclusions within columns of quartz within the stone that form the distinct paralleling nature.

Regardless of how it formed, tiger’s eye is a favorite gem for tumbling and with a Mohs value of seven, it’s a versatile stone for a multitude of uses. While it’s a ubiquitous stone these days, in the 1870s a single carat of tiger’s eye was worth an ounce of gold.

Unakite

Unakite is a terrific example of when a gemstone is a true rock as this beautiful pink and green specimen is a composite of metamorphic rocks including orthoclase, epidote and milky quartz. It’s formed during hydrothermal metamorphosis when the epidote replaces the silicate minerals, primarily plagioclase, within the granite. The epidote is green within unakite, while the pink orthoclase feldspar and quartz create the colorful speckling.

First found in the Unakas Mountains of Western North Carolina and Eastern Tennessee, it’s sometimes found in the rivers of the region, along with the beaches of Lake Superior where glaciers deposited the metamorphic rocks. With a Mohs rating of six to seven, unakite is among the types of gemstones that tumble well. It has been used to make small sculptures or is cut for jewelry. As eye-catching as it is, unakite is also valuable in construction on many levels, including being used as trim along the front steps of the south entrance of the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. It is also sometimes used less visibly as crushed stone in highway construction.

Vesuvianite

Sometimes called idocrase, vesuvianite was originally found along Mount Vesuvius in Italy, which buried the nearby inhabitants of the city of Vesuvius on August 24 in 79 AD, ironically during the festival of Vulcanalia, the god of fire. In the world of gem cutting, vesuvianite often refers to the rough stone, while the faceted gems are called idocrase.

Regardless of the name, this is a calcium-aluminum-silicate mineral that forms in a tetragonal structure. Its most popular colorations range from yellowish green to brownish or olive green, although there is a blue version called cyprine that derives its color from trace amounts of copper. With a Mohs value of six, vesuvianite isn’t a very hard stone and is often used for larger jewelry and sculptures. In its green coloration, it’s sometimes mistaken for other types of gemstones like peridot, although vesuvianite is far rarer.

White Topaz

While topaz is found in practically the entire color range, the white topaz is the clear version and boasts a similar appearance to a diamond. Outside of cost, there are distinct differences between the two types of gemstones. Topazes and diamonds are closely alike in clarity and color, but brilliance is where diamonds shine. Hardness is another determining factor. Diamonds reign supreme rating at Mohs 10, while topazes register as a Mohs eight, considerably less durable with a greater risk of scratching.

Topaz is created when water and magma react during the metamorphic process creating pegmatite featuring natural topaz that is typically initially clear. While the wide variety of colors is because of impurities, such as chromium replacing the aluminum within the stone, white topaz is the gem in its purest form. Specific hues are also created with heat, irradiation or the application of metal oxides to enhance colors. Topaz also exhibits pleochroism where the gem exhibits different colors depending on its angle, although the white topaz tends to remain consistent in its coloration.

Xenotime

On occasion, there are types of gemstones cut from this rare earth mineral, often found in yellowish-orange to reddish-brown hues, although high enough quality stones to facet are rare.

Like topaz, xenotime is found in pegmatite formations, as well as igneous rock and gneiss. Uranium and thorium are often found within this stone, creating natural radioactivity, although it is more commonly seen as a source for the transition metal yttrium, which is used as an alloy in the production of camera lenses and lasers. Its name is derived from the Greek terms for “vain” and “honor” in an early scientist’s snarky rebuke of another. Initially, Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius believed he discovered a new element within the xenotime. This turned out to be the already known yttrium, which prompted mineralogist François Sulpice Beudant to throw down a bit of shade on the claim.

Yellow Kunzite

True gemologists might shudder at the inclusion of yellow kunzite in this types of gemstones list, but it’s an example of when marketing can be misguided. As a rule, kunzite is a pink to light purple variety of spodumene, a lithium-rich mineral found, once again, in pegmatite formations. Manganese gives kunzite those attractive colors. When the gem is yellow, it’s typically just called yellow spodumene. The name change might be a matter of one word sounding more appealing than the other, but it is still misleading as kunzite implies a specific hue. With a Mohs value of six and a half to seven, it is not a very durable gemstone, but it’s possible to find specimens of 20 carats or more. Spodumene, in general, is an important source of lithium, which is critical for car batteries, phones and medicine. It is mined in Afghanistan, Pakistan, California, North Carolina and South Dakota.

Zircon

Not to be confused with the synthetic cubic zirconia, zircon earned its place as a popular gemstone 2000 years ago. Found in sand and as part of many of the rocks throughout the world, zircon is one of the oldest minerals on earth. Because of its uranium content, scientists in Australia dated it back 4.4 million years. Not all zircons are radioactive, but those that are can be heat-treated to stabilize the integrity of the stone by slowing the degradation of the crystalline structure. In their natural form, zircons are found in colors ranging from clear to yellow, green, purple, brown and grays, which are typically caused because of radiation or impurities. Blue zircons, which have been popular since Victorian times, are created through heat treatments.

This story about types of gemstones by letter appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Amy Grisak.

The post Types of Gemstones By Letter (S-Z) first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

The Start

In 1935, a Depression-era government works program allowed the Milwaukee Public Museum (MPM) to continue operations and provide much-needed jobs to local unemployed workers. These new employees spent their days preparing the Museum’s Earth Sciences displays. In the evenings, they held meetings in their homes to learn more about the rocks, minerals, and fossils.

With the MPM offering use of its Trustee Room for meetings and the Milwaukee Journal providing publicity, the non-profit Wisconsin Geological Society was formed in early 1936.

Branching Out

The newly-found box revealed how active the WGS was in building a solid foundation for its club and also for clubs across the country to connect. For instance, in 1940, the WGS was one of three clubs involved in the creation of the Midwest Federation of Mineralogical and Geological Societies (MWF). In 1950, WGS members were among the eight delegates to the first American Federation of Mineralogical Societies (AFMS) meeting held in Salt Lake City.

In 1984, the Wisconsin Geological Society hosted a large joint rock and mineral show with the MWF at State Fair Park in West Allis that resulted in a 36-page document outlining all the activities including field trips. Joint shows were previously held in 1941, 1944, and 1954.

Blackjack Bonanza

Corn dogs, cotton candy, amusement rides, and a lead/zinc mine tour? Yes!

From 1963 to 1966, Blackjack Bonanza mine tours were a re-creation of a real lead/zinc mine at the Wisconsin State Fair. It was a 15,000-square-foot exhibit that sported a 65-foot headframe tower, an elevator shaft that shook to simulate the ride down into the mine tunnel, and a 30 by-45-foot processing room. A hidden 50-ton A/C unit cooled the mine tunnel making guests think they were far below ground. Mine tours cost fairgoers 75 cents per adult and 24 cents per child.

Like other fair attractions, the Blackjack Bonanza became a part of history as well as the role the WGS played in its existence.

The box revealed that in 1966, members of the WGS took over the 10-day, 12-hour per day, operation of the Blackjack Bonanza mine tours. Club members provided ticket sales, tour guides, and mine workers. They also provided mineral samples for a museum display as well as staff to operate the gift shop.

Naming the Wisconsin State Fossil

State fossils are nothing new. Lots of states have them. But through the box and personal interviews, WGS members found out that club members played a significant role in the process for their state. It took three attempts before the trilobite (Calymene celebra) was officially named Wisconsin’s State Fossil in 1986.

The first attempt was made in 1981 by a UWM geology student, Mark Shurilla, but he neglected to name a specific species of trilobite. The bill failed.

Wisconsin Geological Society members picked up the process in 1983, narrowing the field to the Calymene celebra, found primarily and prolifically in Wisconsin. Again, the bill was defeated.

In 1985, at the direction of the WGS Board of Directors, club president, and chief lobbyist for the bill, Margaret Pearson, made a final and successful attempt. This time, the bill was sponsored by State Assembly member, Jeannette Bell, daughter of WGS members Harold and Luella Jeske. Members of WGS were present at the bill signing on April 2, 1986, in Madison, Wisconsin, as Margaret presented Governor Anthony Earl with a trilobite specimen to mark the occasion.

More Fossils

The original Milwaukee Public Museum opened its doors to the public in 1898. It now houses the Milwaukee Public Library. The board room where the first official WGS meeting was held still exists and is on the National Register of Historic Places.

In 1975, the Museum moved to a new facility across the street but did not have enough room for all of the geology exhibits, including fossils that WGS members originally displayed in 1936.

Fundraising is underway for a new facility with a groundbreaking scheduled for late 2023. It should be open to the public sometime in 2026. It will be a representation of ancient sea stack formations present in Wisconsin’s Mill Bluff State Park. The rounded edges of that building will showcase the glacial weathering that formed Wisconsin and deposited those fossils. Inside, will be displayed those original WGS fossils from 1936.

Plan, Collect, Verify & Store

While the plastic box brought history to life for WGS members, they soon found out its information was incomplete and that members had bits and pieces of history in lots of places; old newsletters here, photo books there. Records ended up in various places as officers and leadership transitioned over time. The club historian, and volunteers, made a plan to gather all of the documents. Here is a to-do list for other club historians that may have the same circumstances.

• Scan and identify all photos and documents and create a digital file

• Contact club officers, new and old, for any information in their possession

• Contact outside sources to verify and provide additional information

• Create documents and a presentation to share with members

• Develop a storage plan to preserve past, current, and future records

After collecting information from members, the first critical step for the WGS was to scan and identify photos and documents and place them in a digital file, backed up on a memory stick.

Finding More Photos

Next, was to contact club officers and members to see if any files or pictures had been handed down to them. Also, an article was published in the club’s monthly newsletter, The Trilobite, asking members who are no longer able to attend meetings to offer any information or photos.

Early on, Wisconsin Geological Society members took field trips, attended study groups, participated in mineral shows, and enjoyed parties and picnics just like they do today. One of the early members must have been an avid photographer as many of these functions were captured with lovely photos. The documentation and preservation of those photos were poor. Names of members and photo locations were often missing or destroyed the photograph by writing or gluing a note directly on the photo.

An Interesting Photo

One of the most interesting photos in the collection was of young boys, wearing knickers, admiring the rocks and minerals in a Wisconsin Geological Society display case. The photo had a typewritten note paper-clipped to it, “Hobby Show November 24-27, 1950?” A scanned copy of this photo was emailed to the Milwaukee Public Library (MPL) archives department for verification. They were able to confirm that a hobby show was held from November 24 to 27 in 1949, however, they could not verify that this photo was taken at that show. According to historical fashion records, knickers for young men had gone out of fashion in the late 1930s.

Photo identification is important. Always record the following information:

• Event

• Place/location

• Date taken

• People, use an easy format of left to right (L to R) and rows top to bottom

• Photographer, if possible

Community Help

Research to fill in the missing information became the next priority. Organizations whose history crossed the club’s path came first. Historical societies and newspaper articles provided another great resource.

Some sources responded immediately, while others required a longer response time. The most successful recoveries of information resulted from telephone calls which produced a real person contact. Additional details continue to be added to the club’s historical records as a result of these contacts.

Long-Term Storage

After a huge effort to gather all of this history, it became important for the WGS to change how it gathers and stores its data in the future. The Milwaukee Public Library has worked with club members to develop a plan for the WGS to donate its current historical records and future yearly updates. Current and future WGS members will retain access to all of their records during normal library business hours.

This story about the Wisconsin Geological Society’s history appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Sue Eyre.

The post Wisconsin Geological Society History first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

A few prospectors did indeed make their fortunes. Still, most received their reward by participating in an adventure that thrilled the nation and introduced words and terms like “radioactivity,” “Geiger counter,” and “radiometric prospecting” into the general vocabulary.

Although finding a million-dollar uranium deposit today is unlikely, understanding radioactivity and knowing how to detect it can greatly enhance the mineral-collecting experience. Radioactivity is one of the fascinating physical properties of minerals. It is ionizing energy in the form of particles and rays produced by the spontaneous disintegration or “decay” of unstable atomic nuclei.

Understanding & Identifying Radioactivity

While this definition might seem a bit intimidating, getting a practical handle on radioactivity is not that difficult. Admittedly, the word is loaded with negative connotations linked to nuclear weapons, fallout, toxic waste disposal, reactor meltdowns, and the hazards of radon gas. Nevertheless, radioactivity is very much a part of the natural world, especially the world of mineralogy.

Minerals are described as radioactive when they emit energy in the forms of alpha, beta, or gamma radiation. “Radiation” is the catchall term for energy in the form of waves or particles. Gamma rays make up the extreme high-frequency, shortwave end of the electromagnetic spectrum, broadband of radiation energy that includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, and X-rays.

Alpha and beta particles are not forms of electromagnetic energy. Alpha radiation refers to positively charged, high-energy, low-mass particles that consist of two neutrons and two protons (the nuclei of helium atoms). Beta particles can be negative or positive; negatively charged beta particles are high-speed electrons, while positively charged beta particles are positrons (the “antimatter” counterparts of electrons).

Exploring Ionization

Alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays (along with X-rays) are classified as “ionizing” radiation, meaning that they have sufficient energy to ionize atoms in the materials they strike. Atoms become ionized when they lose electrons and assume a net positive charge. Because it disrupts normal biochemical functions on the molecular and atomic levels, ionizing radiation can be harmful to living tissue. Ionizing radiation is produced by nuclear fusion, nuclear fission, and atomic decay, the latter being the natural disintegration of the nuclei of unstable, heavy elements or isotopes (elements with different numbers of neutrons).

Ionizing radiation can be cosmic, man-made, or geophysical in origin. The sun, a giant nuclear fusion furnace that emits intense gamma radiation, provides most of our cosmic radiation. Fortunately, very little reaches the Earth’s surface because of its distance from the sun and atmospheric absorption. During the past 80 years, the Earth’s cumulative environmental radiation load has increased significantly due to uranium mining and processing, nuclear weapons manufacture and resting, nuclear power and X-ray generation, accidental radiation releases, production of radioactive isotopes for medical and industrial uses, and radioactive waste disposal.

Geophysical Radiation

Mineral collectors, rockhounds, and prospectors are most interested in geophysical radiation, which is emitted by natural radioactive elements that are present in minerals as essential or accessory components. Most geophysical radiation is produced by uranium and thorium, which occur in trace amounts in many igneous rocks, especially granite. The effects of geophysical radiation go far beyond surface radioactivity. An estimated 80 percent of the Earth’s internal heat is produced by the atomic disintegration of uranium, thorium, and the elements and isotopes in their atomic-decay chains.

Of the 92 naturally occurring elements, 11 are radioactive. Of these, only uranium and thorium are relatively abundant. Uranium was identified as an element in 1789; it was isolated in 1841 as a very dense, silvery-white metal that oxidizes rapidly in air. Ranking 51st in crustal abundance, uranium is about as common as tin.

Thorium, discovered in 1828, is similar in appearance to uranium but is half as dense and much more common. Until the discovery of radioactivity, uranium and thorium were little more than laboratory curiosities. Small quantities of uranium oxides were used to color glass yellow, while thorium compounds that incandesce (emit visible light) when heated were employed in gas-lantern mantles.

Driven by Discoveries

The discovery of radioactivity followed investigations into the mysterious, penetrating “invisible energy” that was produced by passing an electrical current through vacuum-discharge tubes. In 1895, the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845-1923) named this energy “X-rays” to signify its unknown nature. Radioactivity was accidentally discovered in 1896 when French physicist Antoine-Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) studied the effects of X-rays and sunlight on potassium uranyl sulfate, a compound that fluoresced in direct sunlight. Becquerel placed this compound atop photographic plates wrapped in lightproof black paper, then exposed it to sunlight.

He noted that the photographic plates became exposed and attributed this to some type of penetrating energy related to fluorescence.

When cloudy weather delayed his experiments, Becquerel stored both the uranium compound and the unexposed, wrapped photographic plates together inside a dark desk drawer. Later, out of curiosity, he developed the plates and found they had already been exposed. This exposure meant that the uranium compound—without any induced fluorescence—continuously emitted invisible, penetrating rays. Becquerel then demonstrated uranium itself, not its compounds, was continuously emitting these rays, which became known as “uranium rays” or “Becquerel rays.”

Marie Curie & Ernest Rutherford

Among the first to investigate these rays was Marie Curie (1867-1934), the Polish-born French chemist and physicist who coined the term “radioactivity.” In 1898, after extracting uranium and thorium from uraninite (uranium oxide), Curie was surprised to find that the uraninite was still highly radioactive. Concluding that it must contain additional sources of radioactivity, she extracted two previously undiscovered radioactive elements—polonium and radium. The radium was particularly interesting because of its extraordinarily intense radioactivity.

In 1902, British physicist Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) proposed that radioactivity consists of what we now know as alpha and beta particles, and gamma rays. He found that alpha and beta particles lose their energy relatively quickly as they pass through materials, while gamma rays have a far greater penetrating power. Until the discovery of radioactivity, most scientists believed that the smallest particle of matter was the atom, which was indivisible and unchangeable. But Rutherford challenged the idea of atomic indivisibility by proposing that alpha and beta particles were subatomic components of disintegrating atoms. This concept opened the door to modern particle physics and an entirely new understanding of the nature of matter and energy.

Early 20th Century Proves Progress

The early 1900s saw many exciting discoveries about radioactivity. While working with thorium, Rutherford had detected radioactivity throughout his laboratory—even after the thorium had been removed. He deduced that this radioactivity came not from the thorium itself, but from a gaseous product of thorium’s atomic disintegration. This realization led to the discovery of another radioactive element—radon.

Rutherford then postulated that radioactive elements spontaneously and continuously disintegrate to release radiation and produce a decay chain of other radioactive elements and isotopes. He also learned that radon’s intense radioactivity decreased by half every few days. His term “half-life” is now used to describe the speed at which unstable atoms undergo atomic disintegration.

Rutherford observed that an inverse relationship existed between half-life and the intensity of radioactivity. Uranium, with its low level of radioactivity, has a very long half-life of more than four billion years. But extremely radioactive elements such as radium and radon have very short half-lives. Unfortunately, the effects of ionizing radiation on living tissue were not understood. While exposure to radioactivity seemed to halt the growth of certain cancers, it also caused burns and open lesions on the skin of many researchers. Nevertheless, hopes that radiation would cure cancer and boost general well-being created a huge demand for radium, some for research purposes, but mostly to be used in patent medicines and bizarre therapeutic devices.

Mining Uranium Ore

The aspect of research triggered the first significant mining of uranium ore—not for uranium, but the ore’s tiny traces of radium. The important radium sources were uraninite from the historic Joachimsthal mines in what is now the Czech Republic and the carnotite (hydrous potassium uranium vanadate) ores of western Colorado. By 1912, radium was the most valuable commodity in existence and cost $100,000 per gram—nearly $2.5 million in today’s currency.

Initially, radioactivity could only be detected with photographic plates and fluorescent screens; it could be crudely measured with gold-leaf electroscopes and complex, piezoelectric-quartz devices. Then in 1908, German physicist Hans Geiger (1882-1945) constructed a sealed, thin metal cylinder with a wire extending down its center. After filling the tube with inert gas, he applied an electrical voltage almost strong enough to pass between the electrodes, in this case, the wire and the tube walls. When exposed to radioactivity, the gas ionized to become conductive, completing the circuit and producing an audible click. These electrical discharges instantly returned the gas ions to their normal energy level, making it possible to continuously and immediately detect additional radioactivity and measure its intensity by “counting.”

Although the first “Geiger counters” were ponderous instruments sensitive only to alpha particles, they were vital to the early studies of radioactivity. In 1928, Geiger and his colleague Walther Müller designed a new tube. Now known as the Geiger-Müller counter, it is sensitive to all forms of radioactivity and is still used today.

Greater Understanding and More Utilization

The uses, perception, and importance of radioactive minerals changed radically during World War II when uranium became the source of its fissionable U-235 isotope needed for the first atomic bombs. Following the war, the United States government subsidized the “Great Uranium Rush,” in which improved, lightweight, shoe-box-sized Geiger-Müller counters were the key tools for the thousands of radiometric prospectors who searched for “hot rocks,” mainly uraninite and carnotite. The radioactivity emitted by uranium and thorium has several effects on minerals, one of which is color alteration.

Long-term exposure to low-level radioactivity can disrupt normal electron positions in the crystal lattices of certain minerals. This activity creates electron traps, called “color centers,” that alter the mineral’s color-absorption-reflection properties. The colors of smoky quartz, blue and purple fluorite and halite, brown topaz, and yellow and brown calcite are often caused by exposure to geophysical radiation.

Metamictization

Another interesting effect is metamictization, which occurs in some minerals that contain accessory amounts of uranium or thorium. In metamictization, geophysical radiation displaces electrons to slowly degrade the host mineral’s crystal structure. Metamictization is usually apparent in crystals as rounded, indistinct edges, curving faces, and decreased hardness and density. Metamictization can sometimes completely degrade crystals into amorphous masses.

Metamictization is common in the rare-earth minerals gadolinite (rare-earth iron beryllium oxysilicate) and monazite (rare-earth phosphate). Because of their similar atomic radii, uranium and thorium often substitute for rare-earth elements to make their minerals radioactive. California’s huge Mountain Pass rare-earth-mineral deposit was actually discovered by a uranium prospector equipped with a Geiger-Müller counter.

Zirconium Silicate

Zircon, or zirconium silicate, another mineral subject to metamictization, has an additional connection to radioactivity and is employed in radiometric dating, which uses known rates of atomic decay to determine the age of ancient rocks. Because of similar atomic radii, uranium substitutes readily for zirconium in zircon. The uranium-238 isotope has an extremely long half-life of 4,468 billion years. The inert, extremely durable zircon “protects” the traces of uranium—an ideal combination for the radiometric dating of ancient rocks.

When igneous rocks solidify from magma, their contained traces of uranium have not yet begun to decay. By measuring the extent of atomic decay, geophysicists can determine when the sample crystallized. The oldest known rocks are found in Australia. Based on partially decayed traces of uranium-238 contained in tiny zircon crystals, these rocks have been dated at 4,374 billion years—only a few hundred million years after the formation of the Earth itself.

Detecting Radioactivity

Today, mineral collectors have access to a wide range of radioactivity-sensing instruments, including dosimeters that measure cumulative radiation exposure, miniaturized Geiger-Müller counters, and scintillators that quantitatively measure geophysical radioactivity, and radiation monitors that measure relative overall radioactivity. Prices for basic instruments begin at about $40, while top-of-the-line, quantitative instruments can cost thousands of dollars.

Choosing the Radiation Monitor For You

For general mineral-collecting and amateur radiometric-prospecting uses, radiation monitors, which cost from $200 to $700, will suffice. I’m familiar with the Radalert™ radiation monitor manufactured by International Medcom of Sebastopol, California. It weighs 10 ounces and contains a miniaturized Geiger-Müller tube. Alpha and beta particles, gamma rays, and X-rays ionize the tube’s gas atoms, causing the tube to discharge with tiny electrical pulses. Integrated circuits convert these pulses to liquid-crystal displays, flash light-emitting diodes, and generate audible clicks.

This instrument detects total ionizing radiation (a mix of geophysical,

cosmic, and man-made radiation) and provides relative, rather than absolute or quantitative, radioactivity measurements. It is ready for use after quickly determining the local background radiation “load,” which varies with geology, solar-flare activity, and elevation.

At sea level, the normal background radiation might be roughly 13 counts per minute. But at a mountain elevation of 7,000 feet where there is less atmospheric shielding of cosmic radiation, the background level might be 30 counts per minute. Radiation monitors can even detect temporarily elevated levels of cosmic radiation due to increased sunspot activity.

Background Radiation

Background radiation also varies with local geology. Radiation levels near granite outcrops are usually higher than in other areas because of traces of uranium within the granite. Radiation monitors can serve as a safety tool to detect elevated levels of radioactivity from potentially hazardous accumulations of radon gas in living spaces. They can also detect the very low levels of alpha radiation emitted by household smoke detectors.

Smoky quartz sometimes has detectable traces of radioactivity, while gadolinite, monazite, and other rare-earth minerals have levels that are easily detectable. When used with such uranium-bearing minerals as canary-yellow carnotite and tyuyamunite, yellowish-green-to-green autunite, and green torbernite, radiation monitors “sound off” with hundreds or thousands of counts per minute.

Among the interesting radioactive collectibles is yellow “uranium glass,” which was popular in the early 1900s and still emits detectable levels of radioactivity. Another is greenish trinitite, quartz sand that was fused together by the world’s first atomic detonation on July 16, 1945, at New Mexico’s Trinity Site. Trinitite specimens, which are still sold today, have low but easily detectable levels of radioactivity.

Proper Handling

Collecting radioactive minerals is not dangerous when precautions are followed. One rule is to collect small specimens. Cumulative radiation and the amount of radon gas emitted by radioactive specimens are directly proportional to specimen size. There is no need to collect cabinet-sized specimens of carnotite, even though they are easily found on mine dumps.

Handle radioactive specimens minimally and always wash hands thoroughly afterward. Never eat, drink, sleep or, smoke around radioactive specimens, and always keep them out of the reach of children. Also, radioactive specimens should be clearly labeled as such and stored in well-ventilated spaces away from living areas.

Radiation monitors can add a new dimension to many field-collecting trips. And they are an absolute necessity when exploring the thousands of uranium mine dumps scattered across the Four Corners regions of Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico. Radiation monitors make the difference between finding nice specimens of brightly colored, oxidized uranium minerals and finding nothing at all.

Collectors should never enter an abandoned mine, but abandoned uranium mines are particularly hazardous. These unventilated mines have accumulated extremely high concentrations of intensely radioactive radon gas.

Anyone interested in the history of radioactivity will enjoy visiting these two New Mexico museums: The Bradbury Science Museum at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Los Alamos, and the National Nuclear Museum of Science and History in Albuquerque. Both contain a wealth of exhibits and information on radioactivity—one of the fascinating physical properties of minerals.

This story about radioactive rocks previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story & photos by Steve Voynick unless otherwise indicated. 

The post Radioactive Rocks: A Rockhound’s Guide first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

This is what artifact hunting is all about – finding ancient tools, weapons and stone pieces that have remained hidden for thousands of years. These implements are often the only evidence remaining of the existence of ancient, complex and highly-functioning cultures that once thrived in North America.

Bits and pieces of chipped flint, granite, jasper and other hard rock can rise to the surface after land is plowed or following a heavy rain, indicating the likely presence of artifacts. Whether located near the water’s edge, in open fields, on mountain ridges, valleys or under overhangs, stone clues reveal locations where ancient family groups lived more than 15,000 years ago.

Artifacts Tell a Story

Granite and other rock artifacts tell the story of early human presence in every section of North America. A variety of rocks were shaped and used as tools. Flint and quartz were fashioned as fire starters. Obsidian and agate were flaked and chipped to be made into knives for blunt instruments such as axes and pestles. Hammerstones and heavier rocks, made of sandstone were ground to useful shapes and implements.

As early cultures traveled along rivers and valleys, cutting across heavily forested land, they continuously manufactured and replenished their rock instruments, chipping and grinding their tools for hunting farming, and cooking.

Hoes, hatchets, awls, drills, scrapers, and spear points as well as small projectiles were fashioned, sharpening and polishing stones, all chipped from rock carefully chosen. These chipping, flaking, carving activities remained unchanged, over thousands of years.

Before getting started, here are nine things to consider to help with finding artifacts and staying safe while doing so.

1. Get a Map

Topographical maps are a basic tool used to study ancient land areas. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has been the primary mapping agency of the United States since 1879. At the U.S. Geological Survey website, you can order paper maps showing ancient forests, rivers and mountainous areas.

General-use maps present detailed elevation and contour lines to help with understanding the landscape. State or county libraries are a source for geological surveys.

Ordinance Survey maps are the best-known type of topographical map. It is possible to work out your exact location by following the contours and checking out the landscape around you, identifying landmarks such as lakes and roads. If you know a river that has remained in the same general configuration for a long time, it is a great place to find ancient rock tools since the area is likely to have been inhabited or visited over the millennia. To order any map, go to MyTopo.com.

2. List of Supplies

Things to take with you include a shoulder bag or backpack with bottled water, magnifying glass, hand digger, garden gloves, small brush and a notebook with pen as well as some sort of container with soft wrapping for any rocks you wish to keep. Carrying a fully-charged cell phone is essential for emergency and can be used for image-taking.

Remember to never go hunting alone in unfamiliar places and always let someone know where you will be.

Wear sturdy shoes or boots and a hat for protection from the elements. Carry a walking stick for climbing support, to clear debris or chase away snakes. Watch where you put your hands if you’re working in brush or rocky terrain. A few simple first-aid items are advantageous for cuts and scrapes. Keep spare clothes, extra water and extra shoes in your vehicle.

3. Permission to Search

For most places, receiving permission to hunt is imperative. Study your state laws before you begin to search; not doing so could get you in hot water with State or Federal authorities. Knowing on whose land you are hunting is essential, out of respect for both the land owner and for any original native residents.

If you are considering privately owned land, you will need permission to hunt on it. When you locate a prospective site, find out whether the land is private property. If it is, ask the owner for permission to search. Most landowners are cooperative, but if not, don’t be discouraged, just move on and keep inquiring in the general vicinity you have chosen.

All artifacts belong to the owner, unless you have permission to keep what you find. It is best to approach farmers at a time of year when the land has not been newly seeded or planted and assure them that you will cause no harm and of your appreciation for the opportunity.

4. Areas to Explore

Aside from farmland, sites off the beaten path are always worth a look, even construction sites may yield artifacts. Prehistoric people rarely camped more than a short distance from water and often chose ground that was easily defendable.

Across from what are now state lines, trails and trading paths were created, crisscrossing through forests and rivers, covering large tracts of land. Villages were not only established near river junctions, but on hillsides and valleys. Many artifacts have been found near both small and large waterways. Some examples include corner-notched spear points and fluted points as well as side-notched arrowheads.

By reading about tribes that settled in your area, you can find the most likely locations. Riverbanks, streams and dry ditches can disguise partially hidden artifacts. Dirt banks where implements may have washed off higher ground should be checked. Choose places where the ground has been disturbed or if dirt has been brought in to build or construct any housing areas.

5. Field Clues

When searching, keep your eyes open for chips of stone, regardless of color, size, coarseness or shape. Stone chips are always worth examining. What you see exposed may not be the entire piece. Although there are many stone tools to be found, such as scrapers and hoes, be receptive to the unexpected rocks that catch your eye.

It won’t be long before you develop a sixth sense about whether the rock you are holding had been held by another human hand long before yours. Small chips were further manufactured for knives, awls or gravers. Large rocks should be examined also. Pounders, some hand axes and hoes were not flaked like a typical arrowhead or knife, but were smoother and ground into shape.

6. How Deeply Can You Dig?

Federal law states that you can retrieve any artifact that is lying on the ground’s surface. If an artifact is partially exposed and easily retrieved, you are allowed to collect it. If not, you can carefully dig a certain distance around and beneath the artifact to loosen it. Protect fragile parts by bringing along an attached dirt clod. Rules regarding depth of digging may seem trivial, but they were made to protect sacred grounds, burial sites and evidence of those who lived on the land first.

7. When to Search

The best time of year to search depends on where you live. For northerners, tramping through wooded areas covered in snow would be unproductive. In agricultural areas, fall and very early spring can yield exposed stone artifacts. In western states and the deep south, the time of year may not be as relevant an issue. Check with farmers and landowners about dates and times of clearing the fields and planting seeds. Consider storms, floods and wildlife. Overall, cloudy and overcast days are best for artifact spotting.

8. Rock Types

Study and learn your location’s rock types. Some common artifact materials are quartz, chert, jasper, chalcedony, agate, basalt, granite and flint. Rhyolite is common in the southern states while quartzite is familiar in the southwest. Arrowheads were made out of anything handy, so focusing on particular rock types can lead to overlooking artifacts. Remember, the ancients travelled and traded.

9. Taking Care of Finds

Cleaning and care of artifacts is important as you don’t want to mismanage an ancient piece of art. First, wrap it in a soft cloth to keep it from knocking against another artifact. Rocks are not unbreakable, especially the tip, fashioned point or notched sides of arrowheads. It’s good to separate large pieces from delicate ones.

After returning home, wash pieces with water and use a soft brush to wash away any dirt clumps. Before washing, make sure the drain is closed so any small pieces are not lost.

Once dry, examine your findings carefully. Using an identification guide, set up a journal with columns, listing date, location where found, type of rock, probable use, time period, shape and workmanship. Write a thorough description of the rock. Give each rock an identifying number or symbol that corresponds to the name you have recorded. This is an essential part of artifact collecting and, if not followed, can cause future confusion and unhappiness.

From east to west, north and south, clues to ancient people’s existence continue to surface, and may be found anywhere in North America. Once your eye is trained, you may find artifacts at unexpected times and places, even your own backyard. Artifact hunting can become a life-long source of discovery and yield increasing appreciation of the inventiveness, survival and history of earlier Americans.

Enjoy the hunt!

This story about finding ancient artifacts previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story and photos by Anita B. Stone.

The post 9 Tips for Finding Artifacts first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Everything is Energy

While this connection might seem puzzling on the surface, it all boils down to energy. Samantha Fey, author, teacher and co-host of the podcast, Psychic Teachers, said, “Crystals have the piezoelectric effect, so they do generate energy. They grow with their own unique vibration and lattice structures.”

This phenomenon occurs when pressure is put on particular crystals, such as quartz, causing the atoms within the stone to move, subsequently turning mechanical energy into electrical energy. This is why crystals are used in watches, televisions and cell phones. It’s this inherent energy that resonates with astrological signs.

Connecting Zodiac Crystals & Sun Signs

Those who are familiar with astrology understand the correlation with the elements — fire, water, air, and earth — and how they offer a glimpse into personality characteristics. When working with crystals according to sun signs, it’s helpful to consider the elements and how they best fit with the particular stones.

Fey used an example of the sun sign Cancer, which is attributed to the moon and is a classic water sign. “They are very watery and ruled by their emotions. Look for crystals with those similar qualities,” she said, such as moonstone.

It’s also important to understand how a stone works with a particular sign in coordination with where we are physically, mentally, and spiritually. “Our energy fluctuates up and down all the time,” Fey said. Depending on what we need, crystals can amplify or balance our actions.

While there are classic combinations of crystals and Zodiac signs, such as obsidian with those under Scorpio, in reality, there are multiple crystals per sign. The choice depends on what you need to do or learn, and this list is a good start to finding a crystal that works for you.

Aries Sign

Notoriously stubborn, Aries people know what they want and are clear about who they are. Fittingly, amazonite is an ideal crystal for this sun sign as it enhances inner strength and the warrior attitude, particularly with women going through significant changes in their lives.

“It’s called the stone of hope and new beginnings,” said Fey, and is excellent for manifesting dreams and goals.

Deb Bowen, co-host on Psychic Teachers, as well as a metaphysical teacher and author, recommends Sardonyx because it is excellent in the realm of self-control and discipline.

“It’s really good for communicating relationships,” she noted because Aries can have sticking points in this area.

Taurus Sign

An earth sign, Taureans, are grounded people who are nurturing and comforting to those most important to them. Being a bull, they are known for their stubbornness and uncompromising nature.

The beautiful light blue to green, or sometimes white kyanite is good for Taureans because it helps clear and align the chakras, according to Bowen. It also builds stability and trust and is excellent for communication. Kyanite cannot hold negative energy.

Fey recommended, ”Carnelian is a great stone for bringing in creativity, positivity and joy. It’s the cheerleader of the stones and it keeps the other stones together.”

Gemini Sign

When a “twin” is around, there’s never a dull moment. Geminis are known to have lots of energy and are very talkative. They can also be indecisive and impulsive.

The green and smooth gem serpentine is a good fit for a Gemini. “It helps you to align your soul’s purpose,” explained Bowen as it enhances the heart chakra. She noted that it also offers protection against the dark arts.

Cancer Sign

Cancer is the classic mother of the Zodiac who is family-oriented, intuitive, and a tad moody. Not surprisingly, the “crab” is their sign.

Bowen said, “Sometimes cancer folks can get sad or depressed.” Because of this tendency, she said blue chalcedony is a good choice. “It helps cancer to communicate the truth. It also dispels negative energies and activates positive changes. It’s a great stone for those who seek general positive shifts in their lives.”

Leo Sign

Leo is known to love being the center of attention with their bigger-than-life energy. They’re also loyal, generous, and loving. The funny thing is, their negative traits simply seem to be their positive traits on overdrive.

Because of this desire to shine, citrine is the stone for Leos. ”Citrine is like your own personal sun,” said Fey. This yellow-to-orange type of quartz appears charged by the sun. Unfortunately, natural citrine is a rare stone and much of what we find is heat-treated amethyst (enhanced gemstones). It’s also well-known to manifest abundance, a natural quality of Leos, and is sometimes called the “stone of success” or the “merchant’s stone.”

Virgo Sign

Logical and energetic, Virgos thrive with well-organized and practical goals, while on the flip side, they tend to overthink situations and can often seem aloof and detached.

Resembling the blues and greens of the earth, the mineral chrysocolla is often found in copper deposits and referred to as the “Stone of the Goddess,” with famous figures, such as Cleopatra, valuing its beauty and energy.

Fey said chrysocolla is like a happy-go-lucky friend. “It’s a great stone for everything. It helps people face some hard truths,” she said. She also recommended that those working with this stone visualize their goals going into the stone.

Libra Sign

The scales represent Libra’s desire for fairness and balance, which is the center of this witty, smart and outgoing soul. With Venus as their ruling planet, they are all about love but will carry a grudge if slighted.

“Libras look at both sides differently, or rather it’s difficult to choose sides,” said Bowen, who is a Libra. She said bloodstone is good because it balances everything, including Libra’s energy. “It helps level folks be present in the here and now.”

Scorpio Sign

Scorpios get a bad rap as being secretive, defensive and vindictive, but their emotions run deep (even if they don’t show it), and they are passionate about whatever, and whoever, they love.

“Malachite is the drill sergeant,” said Fey. “It’s the only stone that breaks to warn you when something wicked this way comes. It’s great for protection.” This rich green stone is also an important part of facing Scorpio’s shadow side. Fey said, “It’s like a friend that is in your face.”

Known as the stone of transition, Bowen said, “Charoite connects the heart and crown chakras.” It allows someone to focus on self-love when setting healthy boundaries.

Sagittarius Sign

Ruled by Jupiter, Sagittarius people are gregarious and big dreamers but can be blunt and preachy.

Fey recommends labradorite that resembles the aurora borealis with its color-shifting nature where one moment it looks gray, the next is shimmering blues and greens. “It helps block the emotions and stuff around you that’s not yours. It’s more like a filter. It lets the good stuff come in and the bad stuff goes out,” she said.

Capricorn Sign

With Saturn as the taskmaster, Capricorns get things done. Although they are disciplined and responsible, this can shift into a level of condescension toward others.

Amethyst is the go-to for these hardworking signs. “It cleans, clears, and heals everything around it,” said Bowen. ”It’s a balancing, protective and loving stone. It’s a great stone to connect. It fights off temptation and works with decision-making. It’s good for sleeping and it protects them from nightmares.”

Once used by the Romans to fend off the evil eye, tiger’s eye is protective and balancing. Fey said, “It works with your energy to establish a foundation and recognize patterns of things that no longer serve you. She said to place tiger’s eye on the solar plexus during meditation for courage and confidence, as well as to shift toxic energy into positive ones.

Aquarius Sign

Quirky and unconventional, the highly social Aquarians champion humanitarian efforts and relish deep conversations. Yet, they are not known for being the most emotionally open individuals and might appear aloof.

“Aquarians are ahead of their time,” said Fey. “Dark, ruby red garnets help them recharge and revitalize their energy. Write down goals and dreams for the year and place garnets on top of the list.”

The ornamental chrysanthemum stone is typically all black except for a splash of white in the middle resembling a flower. Bowen recommended it for Aquarians because ”it brings to us child-like energy and being able to live in the moment.”

Pisces Sign

The astrological fish who swim in deep waters are philosophical, intuitive and creative, yet at times, spend too much time in their own heads.

To counteract this latter tendency, aquamarine, which is often called the “stone of courage” boosts confidence for the Pisces people. Bowen said, “It’s such a beautiful stone. It helps one to always be prepared.” Legend says aquamarine was spilled from a mermaid’s treasure chest and it was supposedly blessed by Neptune.

Fey recommended fluorite to clear negative energy. Called the student’s stone, she said, “It’s created for cleansing the aura. It eliminates negative patterns and helps you to see your path more clearly,” said Fey. She also mentioned it is effective in blocking electromagnetic fields and is often kept near the computer to minimize exposure.

Picking the right stone for you is a matter of listening to the universe. “It’s really important when you buy sun sign crystals that the stone speaks deep, deep into your soul,” said Bowen.

“It’s great to read and study, but at the end of the day, you have to go with the crystal that resonates with you,” noted Fey. “Walk into a store that sells stones and see what you’re drawn to. Find your buddy and stick with it for a while.”

*The metaphysical properties discussed in this article are not intended as a substitute for traditional medical treatment. If you have a health issue, please seek a licensed medical professional. The crystals and stones discussed are not intended to diagnose, treat or cure any conditions.

This story about zodiac crystals previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Amy Grisak.

The post Best Crystals for Your Zodiac Sign first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.